Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
How Do We Learn?
learning that certain events occur together
Classical Condition
The type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus becomes to be elicited by different formally neutral stimulus
Pavlov and Watson
USC, UCR, CS, CR
Operant Conditioning
The type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishment
B.F. Skinner
Reinforcement and punishment
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
The type of learning in which behaviors are learned by observing a model
Albert Bandura
modeling and vicarious learning
an involuntary behavior is determined by what precedes it
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
Classical Conditioning: neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response)
Conditioned Response: originally neutral stimulus (NS) that after, association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response
Conditioned Response (CR): the learned response to a previous neutral stimulus
- the responses (UR & CR) are always the same
- The NS and CS are always the same
- The NS becomes the CS through learning
5 Critical Principles Are:
Acquisition
we know learning exists because the CS is linked to the USS
the CS should come before the USC
they should be very close together in timing
learning is better when the UCS and CS occur together frequently
learning is better when the CS is new or unique
Extinction
acquisition doesn't last forever
the moment the CS is no longer associated with the USC, we have extinction
Reconditioning: the quick relearning of a CR after extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
sometimes, after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented
Generalization
sometimes is so similar to the CS that you get a CR
Discrimination
something so different to the CS you do not get a CR
Operant Conditioning
The learner is NOT passive
learning bases on consequences
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened, it is followed by a punishment
Classical vs. Operant
Classical:
behavior is determined by what PRECEDES it
involuntary
dog salivates after a tone
Operant
behavior is determined by anticipation of what FOLLOWS it
voluntary
dog sits in anticipation of getting a treat
They both use acquisition, discrimination, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and extinction
Law and Effect
Thorndike's principle the responses are "stamped in" by rewards and "stamped out" by punishments
Shaping
is reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior
Reinforcer
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
2 types: positive and negative
Positive Reinforcementstrengthens a response by adding a stimulus after a response
Negative Reinforcement removes something unpleasant that was already in the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again (think avoiding/escaping)
Punishment
Any event that DECREASES the behavior that it follows
Meant to decrease behavior
Positive Punishment:
addition of something unpleasant
Negative Punishment:
removal of something unpleasant
Punishment works best when it's immediately done after behavior and if it harsh
Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus
Secondary Reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
Token Economy
every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given
they can trad token for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)
used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools
Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement
Continuous:
Reinforce the behavior EVERY TIME the behavior is exhibited
usually done when the subjects is first learning to make the association
acquisition comes really fast
but so does extinction
Partial:
Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited
acquisition comes more slowly
but more resistant to extinction
FOUR types of partial reinforcement schedules
Fixed Ratios
- provides a reinforcement after a set number of responses
Variable Ratios
- provides a reinforcement after a random number of responses
- is very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction
Fixed Interval
- requires a SET amount of time to e;apse before giving the reinforcement
Variable Interval
- requires a random amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement
- very hard to get acquisition also very resistant to extinction
Observational Learning
Albert Bandura and his BOBO doll
we learn through modeling behavior form others
observational learning + operant conditioning = social learning theory
Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day
It's the best to take a test or study during your circadian peaks
Sleep Stages
there are 5 identified stages of sleep
it takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the 5 stages
the brainwaves will change according to the sleep stage you're in
first 4 stages are known as nREM sleep
the 5th stage is know as REM
Stage 1
this is experienced as falling to sleep and is a transition stage between wake and sleep
usually lasts between 1 and 5 minutes and occupies approximately 2-5% of a normal night sleep
eyes begin to roll slightly
consists mostly of theta waves (high amplitude, low frequency (slow))
brief periods of alpha waves, similar to those present while awake
Stage 2
this follows stage 1 sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep
this stage is a part of the 90 minute cycles and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep
Stage 3 and 4
stages 3 and 4 are "delta" sleep or "slow wave" sleep and may last 15-30 minutes
it's also called "slow wave" sleep because the brain actively slows down dramatically from the "theta" rhythm of stage 2 to a much slower rhythm called "delta"and the height or amplitude of the wave increases dramatically
contrary to popular belief, it's delta sleep that's the "deepest" stage of sleep (not REM) and the most restorative
it's delta sleep that a sleep-deprived person's brain craves the first and foremost
in children, delta sleep can occupy up to 40% of all sleep time and this is what makes children unwakeable or "dead asleep" during most of the night
Stage 5: REM Sleep
REM - Rapid eye movement
this is a very active stage of sleep
composes 20-25% of a normal night's sleep
breathing, heart rate, and brain wave actively quicken
vivid dreams can occur
from REM, you go back to stage 2 REM
body is essentially paralyzed during REM
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
not your once in a while (I have a big test tomorrow) having trouble getting to sleep
insomnia is not defied by the number of hours you sleep every night
Narcolepsy
characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks
lapses directly into REM sleep (usually during times of stress or joy)
Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakening
Night Terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified
occur in stage 4, not REM, and are not often remembered
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)
sleepwalking is a sleep disorder effecting an estimated 10% of all humans at least once in their lifetime
sleepwalking most often occurs during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or 4) early in the night
Dreams
Manifest Content: the remembered storyline of a dream
Latent Content: the underlying meaning of a dream
Drugs
Drug Tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular dose of the same dose
Drugs are either...
- Agonists
- Antagonists
- Reuptake inhibitors
if a drug is used often, a tolerance is created for the drug
thus you need more of the drug to feel the same effect
if you stop using a drug you can develop withdrawal symptoms
Psychoactive Drugs
depressants: slows down body functions
stimulants: arouse body functions
hallucinogens: distort perceptions or evoke sensations without sensory input
Alcohol:
slows down sympathetic nervous system
disrupts memory processing
reduce self-awareness
involved in up to 60% of all crimes
the worst drug from a macro-perspective out there
Barbiturates:
tranquilizers
taken to sleep (but reduce REM sleep)
taken with other drugs- you can get a synergistic effect
Opiates:
has depressive and hallucinogenic qualities
agonists for endorphins
morphine, heroin, methadone, and codeine
all these drugs cross the placental barrier... teratogens
Stimulants:
speed up body processes
more powerful ones (like cocaine) give people feelings of invincibility
amphetamines (speed)
cocaine
crack
"the crash"
Hallucinogens
LSD (Acid)
hallucinogens cause distorted perception of the environment
small amounts change how the brain functions
brain cells fire at random, causing confusion and distorted perception of reality
Terminal branches of axon (from junctions with other cells)
Axon (passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands)
Meylin Sheath (covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses)
Neural Impulses (electrical signals traveling down the axon)
Dendrites (receive messages from other cells)
Cell Body (the cell's life support; support center)
Neurons do NOT touch each other - the space in between
How does a Neuron fire?
It is an electrochemical process
electrical inside the neuron
chemical outside the neuron (in the synapse in the form of a neurotransmitter)
the firing is called Action Potential
The All-or-None Response
The idea that either the neural fires or it does not- no part way firing
like a gun
Steps of Action Potential
dendrites receive neurotransmitter from another neuron across the synapse
reached its threshold- then fires based on the All-or-None response
opens up a portal in axon, and lets in positive ions (sodium) which mix with negative ions (potassium) that's already inside the axon (thus neurons at rest have a slightly negative charge)
the mixing of + and - ions causes an electrical charge that pens up the next portal (letting in more K) while closing the original portal
process continues down the axon to the axon terminal
terminal buttons turns electrical charge into chemical (neurotransmitters) and shoots messages to the next neuron across the synapse
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers released by the terminal buttons through the synapse
Acetylcholine
Its function is motor movement and maybe memory
If you have too much Ac H you get depression
If you don't have enough Ac H it leads to Alzheimer's
Dopamine
Its function is motor movement and alertness
Lack of Dopamine is associated with Parkinson's disease
Overabundance is associated with Schizophrenia
Serotonin
Function deals with mood control
Does affect hunger, sleep, and arousal
Lack of Serotonin has been linked with depression
Endorphins
Function deals with pain control
We become addicted to endorphin causing feelings
GABA
It's a major inhibitory neurotransmitter
An under supply of GABA is linked to seizures, trimmers, and insomnia
Norepinephrine
It's associated with alertness and arousal
Under supply can depress the mood
Glutamate
It's a major excitatory neurotransmitter
It's involved in memory
An oversupply can overstimulate the brain produce migraines or seizures
Epinephrine
Involved in energy and glucose metabolism
Too much ca result in anxiety and restlessness
Too little has been associated with depression
Nervous Systems
Agonists - make neurons fire
Antagonists - stop neural firing
Reuptake Inhibitors - block neurotransmitters from entering the neuron
Divisions
Central Nervous System
The brain and spinal cord
CNS
Peripheral Nervous System
All nerves that are encased in bone
Everything but the spinal cord and brain
Divided into 2 categories... Somatic and Autonomic
Somatic Nervous System
controls voluntary muscle movement
uses motor (efferent) neurons
Autonomic Nervous System
controls the automatic functions of the body
divided into 2 categories... the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous System
fight or flight response
automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilates pupils, slows down digestion
Parasympathetic Nervous System
automatically slows down body after a successful event
Heart rate and breathing slows down, pupils constrict, and digestion speeds up
Endocrine System
a system of glands that secrete hormones
similar to nervous system, except hormones work a lot slower than neurotransmitters
Ways to Study the Brain
Accidents
- Phineas Gage story
- personality changed after the accident
Lesions
- Removal destructions of some part of the brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- detects brain waves through their electrical output
- used mainly in sleep research
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT Scan)
- 3-D Xray of the brain
- Good for locating tumors, but tells us nothing about function
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- More detailed picture of brain using magnetic field to knock electrons off axis
- Takes many still pictures and turns images into a movie like production
Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)
- Measures how much of a chemical the brain is using (usually glucose consumption)
Functional MRI
- Combination of PET and MRI
Parts of the Brain
Hind-brain
controls basic biological structures
Medulla
part of the hind
located just above the spinal cord
involved in the control of breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
Pons
located just above the medulla
it connects the hind-brain, mid-brain, and fore-brain
involved with facial expressions and deals with emotions
Cerebellum
bottom rear of the brain
known as the little brain
coordinates fine muscle movement
Mid-Brain
coordinates simple movement with sensory information
the most important structure in the mid-brain is know as reticular formation
Reticular Formation- controls arousal and ability to focus our attention
Fore-Brain
what makes us human
largest part of the brain
made up of thalamus, lymbic system, and cerebral cortex
Thalamus
switch board of brain
receives sensory signals from the spinal cord and sends them to other parts of the fore-brain
every sense except smell
Lymbic System
- Hypothalamus
may be the most important structure of the brain
controls and regulates body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system
- Hippocampus
involved in the processing and storage of memories
- Amygdala
involved with how we process memory
also deals with emotions
- Pituitary Gland
secretes hormones to your bloodstream
Cerebral Cortex
made up of packed neurons we call "gray matter"
Glial Cells- support brain cells
wrinkles are called fissures
Corpus Callosum
thick bundle of nerves
divides the two hemispheres
Hemispheres
brain divided into two hemispheres
contralateral control- right controls the left and vice versa
Left Hemisphere: logic and sequential tasks
Right Hemisphere: Spacial and creative tasks
Brain Plasticity
the idea that the brain, when damaged, will attempt to find new ways to reroute messages
Children's brains are more plastic than adults
Four Frontal Lobes
Frontal Lobe
Thought and emotional control
Contains Motor Cortex: sends signals to the body to control muscle movemet
Contains Borca's Area: responsible for controlling muscles and produce speech
Damage to Borca's Area is called Borca's Aphasia: unable to make movement to talk
Parietal Lobe
Contains the Sensory Cortex: receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body
Association Areas: any area not associated with receiving sensory information or coordinating muscle movement
Occipital Lobe
deals with vision
Contains Visual Cortex: interprets messages from our eyes into images we understand
Temporal Lobe
deals with hearing
process sound sensed by our ears
interpreted in auditory cortex
not laterized
Contains Wernike's Area: interprets written and spoken speech
Wernike's Aphasia: unable to understand language- the syntax and grammar jumbled
Hindsight Bias- The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome that you knew all along.
Overconfidence - We tend to think we know more than we actually do.
The Barnum Effect - It is the tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterization of themselves and take them to be accurate.
Applied vs. Basic Research: -Applied research is clear, practical applications -You can use it -Basic research explores questions that you may be curious about but not intended to be immediately used
Hypothesis: -Expresses a relationship between 2 variables -A variable is anything that can vary among participants in a study -Participating in class leads to better grades then not participating
Independent Variable- Whatever is being manipulated in the experiment.
Dependent Variable: -Whatever is being measured in the experiment -It is dependent on the independent variable
Operational Definition: -It is a statement of the specific methods used to measure a variable -Explain what you mean in your hypothesis sampling
Sampling: -The sample mus be representative of the population you want to study -Get a random sample -Stratified sampling- it allows the researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria Ex. Race
Experimental Method: -Looking to prove casual relationships -Cause = Effect
Experimental Group vs. Control Group: -Experimental- the group receiving or reacting to the independent variable in an experiment -Control- It is the group that doesn't receive the independent variable in an experiment
Hawthorne Effect- Just the fact that you know you are in an experiment can cause change.
Experimenter Bias
Another confounding variable
not a conscious act
Double-Blind Procedure- neither the researcher or participant is awake of whose receiving the treatment or whose receiving the placebo.
Other Confounding Methods
Placebo Effect- it is a harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed for in psychological effect and physiological effect.
Correlation Method- Correlation expresses a relationship between two variables , it doesn't show causation
Types of Correlation: -Positive Correlation- The variable go in the same direction. -Negative Correlation- The variables go in opposite direction.
Survey Method: -Most common type of study in psychology -It measures correlation, it's cheap and fast -Need a good random sample -Low response rate
Naturalistic Observation: -Watch subjects in their natural environment -Do not manipulate the environment -The good is that there is Hawthorne effect -The bad is that we can never really show cause and effect
Correlation Coefficient is a number that measures strength of a relationship, it ranges from -1 to +1. The relationship gets weaker the closer you get.
Case Studies: -A detailed picture of one or a few subjects -Tells us a greater story...but is just descriptive research -doesn't give us correlation data -Cross Section- Analyzes a sample of the population at one point in time -Longitudinal- Analyzing the same people over a period of time -Descriptive Statistics- describe sets of data
Other Measurements: -Range- distance from highest to lowest scores -Standard Deviation- the variance of scores around the mean -The higher the variance or SD, the more spread out the distributor is
Ethics
Animal Research: -Clear Purpose -Acquire animal legally -Treated in a humane way -Least amount of suffering possible
Human Research: -No coercion- must be voluntary -Informed consent anonymity -No significant risk -Must debrief
Short-Term Memory
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